Religion and beliefs in Vietnam

++ Belief
The moral and religious life of most Vietnamese people is governed by a complex mixture of Confucian, Buddhist and Taoist philosophical teachings interwoven with ancestor worship and ancient, animistic practices. Incompatibilities are reconciled on a practical level into a single, functioning belief system whereby a family may maintain an ancestral altar in their home, consult the village guardian spirit, propitiate the God of the Hearth and take offerings to the Buddhist pagoda.

The primary influence on Vietnam’s religious life has been Chinese. But in southern Vietnam, which historically fell within the Indian sphere, small communities of Khmer and Cham still adhere to Hinduism, Islam and Theravada Buddhism brought direct from India. From the fifteenth century on, Christianity has also been a feature, represented largely by Roman Catholicism but with a small Protestant following in the south. Vietnam also claims a couple of home-grown religious sects, both products of political and social turmoil in the early twentieth century: Cao Dai and Hoa Hao.

The political dimension has never been far removed from religious affairs in Vietnam, as the world was made vividly aware by Buddhist opposition to the oppressive regime of President Diem in the 1960s. After 1975, the Marxist-Leninist government of reunified Vietnam declared the state atheist, while theoretically allowing people the right to practise their religion under the constitution. In reality, churches and pagodas were closed down, religious leaders sent for re-education, and followers discriminated against if not actively persecuted.

Since 1986 the situation has eased, with the right to religious freedom being reaffirmed in the 1992 constitution. A number of high-profile prisoners held on religious grounds have been released, while party leaders have publicly demonstrated the new freedoms by visiting pagodas and churches. As a result an increasing number of Vietnamese are once again openly practising their faith. Indeed, as Vietnam faces the onslaught of new ideas and the "social evils" spawned by the breakdown of its moral codes, people are looking to religion both for personal guidance and as a stabilizing force in society. Despite such moves toward greater freedom of worship, however, the government continues to exercise close control on religious groups through such practices as monitoring appointments, training institutions and publications. It is regularly accused of failing to make real progress on human rights issues and came in for particularly severe criticism for its crackdown on ethnic minority Christians following widespread unrest in the central highlands in 2001 and 2004. Later in 2004 the US designated Vietnam a "Country of Particular Concern" because of its violations of religious freedom. The Vietnamese government subsequently released a number of prisoners and passed legislation outlawing forced recantations, amongst other measures. Human rights organizations, however, say it is being interpreted and enforced unevenly.

++ Ancestor worship

One of the oldest cults practised in Vietnam is that of ancestor worship, based on the fundamental principles of filial piety and of obligation to the past, present and future generations. No matter what their religion, virtually every Vietnamese household, even hardline Communist, will maintain an ancestral altar in the belief that the dead continue to live in another realm. Ancestors can intercede on behalf of their descendants and bring the family good fortune, but in return the living must pay respect, perform prescribed ceremonies and provide for their ancestors’ wellbeing. At funerals and subsequent anniversaries, quantities of paper money and other votive offerings (these days including television sets and cars) are burnt, and choice morsels of food are regularly placed on the altar. Traditionally this is financed by the income from a designated plot of land, and it is the responsibility of the oldest, usually male, member of the family to organize the rituals, tend the altar and keep the ancestors abreast of all important family events; failure in any of these duties carries the risk of inciting peeved ancestors to make mischief.

The ancestral altar occupies a central position in the home. On it are placed several wooden tablets, one for each ancestor going back five generations. One hundred days after the funeral, the deceased’s spirit returns to reside in the tablet. People without children to honour them by burning incense at the altar are condemned to wander the world in search of a home. Some childless people make provision by paying a temple or pagoda to observe the rituals, while the spirits of others may eventually take up residence in one of the small shrine houses (cuong) you see in fields and at roadsides. Important times for remembering the dead are Tet, the lunar new year, and Thanh Minh ("Festival of Pure Light"), which falls on the fifth day of the third lunar month.

++ Spirit worship

Residual animism plus a whole host of spirits borrowed from other religions have given Vietnam a complicated mystical world. The universe is divided into three realms: the sky, earth and man, under the overall guardianship of Ong Troi, Lord of Heaven, assisted by spirits of the earth, mountains and water. Within the hierarchy are four sacred animals who appear everywhere in Vietnamese architecture: the dragon, representing the king, power and intelligence; the phoenix, embodying the queen, beauty and peace; the turtle, symbol of longevity and protector of the kingdom; and the mythical kylin, usually translated as unicorn, which represents wisdom.

In addition each village or urban quarter will venerate a guardian spirit in either a temple (den) or communal house (dinh). The deity may be legendary, for example the benevolent horse-spirit Bach Ma of Thang Long (modern Hanoi), and will often come from the Taoist pantheon. Or the guardian may be a historical figure such as a local or national hero, or a man of great virtue. In either case people will propitiate these tutelary spirits – represented on the altar by a gilded throne – with offerings, and will consult them in times of need. The dinh also serves as meeting house and school for the community.